Lifelong Motor Development

xiii
Contents
To the Student v
Preface vii
Part One: An Overview of Lifelong Human Development 1
1 Introduction to the Developmental Perspective 3
The Primary Determinants of Motor Behavior 6
General Terminology 6
Significant Observations (Assumptions) About Development 8
Periods of Life-Span Development 11
Prenatal (from Conception to Birth) 11
Infancy (from Birth to 2 Years) 11
Childhood (from 2 to 12 Years) 11
Adolescence (from 12 to 18 Years) 12
Adulthood (18 Years and Older) 12
The Developmental Continuum 12
Refl exive/Spontaneous Movement Phase 12
Rudimentary Phase 12
Fundamental Movement Phase 13
Sport Skill Phase 14
Growth and Refi nement Phase 14
Peak Performance 14
Regression 14
Research in Motor Development 14
Why Study Motor Development? 15
Methods of Study 15
Cross-sectional Design 16
Longitudinal Design 16
Microgenetic Design 17
Measuring Brain Structure and Function 18
Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Functional Magnetic
Resonance Imaging 19
Electroencephalography 19
Magnetoencephalography 19
Functional Near-Infrared Imaging 20
T ranscranial Magnetic Stimulation 20
Theoretical Views 20xiv Contents
Contributing Views 21
Maturation View 21
Learning-Behavioral View 21
Cognitive-Developmental View 22
Environmental Context Theory 22
Bioecological Systems Theory 23
Gibson’s Ecological Perspective 24
Biological Systems Theory 24
Information-Processing View 26
Developmental Biodynamics 26
Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience 27
Constraints Model 28
Careers in Motor Development 30
summary 31
think about it 31
learning activities 32
weblinks 32
suggested readings 33
Part Two: Biological Growth and Development 35
2 Heredity and Neurological Changes 37
Heredity 38
Neurological Changes 40
Basic Structure and Function 40
Early Developmental Changes 45
Changes in Major Brain Structures 56
Brain Lateralization and the Corpus Callosum 57
Neurological Changes with Advanced Aging 58
summary 59
think about it 59
learning activities 61
suggested readings 61
3 Physical Growth Changes 62
An Overview of Physical Growth and Development 63
Prenatal Development 65
The Pubescent (Adolescent) Growth Spurt 67
Changes in Body Proportions and Physique 72
Body Proportions 72
Physique 76
Changes with Advanced Aging 77 Contents xv
Structural Development 77
Height 77
Skeletal Growth 78
Changes with Advanced Aging 81
Body Mass 83
Body Weight 83
Body Composition 84
Changes with Advanced Aging 89
Maturity Estimates 90
Morphological Age 90
Dental Age 91
Sexual Age 91
Skeletal Age 92
Maturity Variations 93
Implications for Motor Performance 96
summary 97
think about it 98
learning activities 98
4 Physiological Changes 100
Cardiorespiratory Development 101
Basic Structure and Function 101
Early Growth and Development 102
Respiratory Component Growth 103
Aerobic Power 104
Anaerobic Power 106
Heart Rate 107
Cardiac Output and Stroke Volume 108
Vital Capacity and Pulmonary Ventilation 108
Thermoregulation 109
Blood Characteristics 110
Blood Volume 110
Red Blood Cell Content 111
Basal Metabolic Rate 111
Muscular Strength 113
Flexibility 116
Changes with Advanced Aging 117
Change in Cardiorespiratory Function 117
Change in Basal Metabolic Rate 119
Change in Muscular Strength 119
Change in Flexibility 119
summary 122
think about it 123
learning activities 123xvi Contents
5 Factors Affecting Growth and Development 124
Prenatal Development 125
Principles of T eratogenic Effects 125
Internal (Maternal) Factors 126
External (Environmental) Factors 127
Nutrition and Physical Activity During Postnatal Development 132
Nutrition and Development 133
Physical Activity 135
Glands and Hormonal Activity 143
Pituitary Gland 144
Thyroid Gland 144
Adrenal Glands 146
Other Glandular Functions 146
summary 147
think about it 147
learning activities 148
Part Three: Perception and Information Processing 149
6 Perceptual Development 151
Visual Perception 153
The Visual Process 154
Developmental Change in Visual Structures 154
Developmental Change in Visual Functions 155
Kinesthetic Perception 164
Structure and Function of the Kinesthetic System 164
Development of Kinesthetic Perception 164
Basic Movement Awareness 165
Auditory Perception 170
Tactile Perception 171
Perceptual Integration 172
Visual-Kinesthetic Integration 172
Visual-Auditory Integration 173
Auditory-Kinesthetic Integration 173
Changes with Advanced Aging 174
Visual Perception 174
Auditory Perception 175
Kinesthetic Perception 175
Gibson’s Ecological Perspective 176
Embodiment 179
Perceptual-Motor Training Programs 180
summary 181
think about it 181
learning activities 182
suggested readings 182 Contents xvii
7 Information Processing and Motor Control 183
Attention 185
Alertness 185
Divided Attention 186
Selective Attention 188
Memory 189
Memory Structures 189
Explicit and Implicit Memory 194
Processing Speed and Movement Time 195
Programming 197
Schema Theory (Generalized Motor Program) 197
Developmental Theories and Approaches to the Study of
Motor Control 198
Constraints Model 203
Changes with Advanced Aging 205
Attention 205
Working (Short-T erm) Memory 206
Long-T erm Memory 206
Knowledge 206
Processing Speed and Movement Time 207
Programming 208
summary 209
think about it 210
learning activities 210
suggested readings 210
Part Four: Motor Behavior Across the Life Span 211
8 Early Movement Behavior 213
Reflexive Behavior 215
Importance of Refl exes in Infant Development 215
T ypes of Refl exes 216
Theoretical Views of Refl ex Behavior and Voluntary Movement 224
Spontaneous Movements (Stereotypies) 225
Rudimentary Behavior (Initial Voluntary Movement) 227
The Basis of Voluntary Movement 228
Postural Control 229
Rudimentary Locomotion 231
Walking 235
Manual Control 240
Motor Asymmetries 244
summary 246
think about it 247
learning activities 247
suggested readings 247xviii Contents
9 Motor Behavior During Early Childhood 248
Developing Motor Competence 250
Introduction to Fundamental Movement 250
Fundamental Motor Skill Development 251
Basic T erminology 251
Methods for Studying Change 252
Movement Patterns (Process Characteristics) 254
Walking 254
Running 254
Jumping 256
Hopping 261
Galloping, Sliding, and Skipping 263
Throwing 264
Catching 268
Striking 272
Kicking 274
Ball Bouncing and Dribbling 276
Climbing 278
Fine Motor Manipulative Behavior 280
Finger Differentiation 281
Construction and Self-Help Skills 281
Drawing and Writing 283
Bimanual Control 285
Functional (Motor) Asymmetries 287
Handedness 287
Footedness 288
Eye Preference 288
summary 289
think about it 289
learning activities 290
10 Motor Behavior During Later Childhood and
Adolescence 291
Quantitative (Product) Motor Performance Changes 293
Motor Skill Changes 296
Running Speed 296
Throwing 297
Jumping 299
Kicking 300
Catching 301
Striking with an Implement 302
Hopping 302
Ball Bouncing and Dribbling 303
Balance 303
Motor Skill Refinement 303
Youth Sport Participation 304
School Physical Education 309 Contents xix
summary 312
think about it 312
learning activities 313
11 Motor Behavior in the Adult Years 314
Peak Motor Performance 316
Growth and Physiological Function 316
Motor Performance Characteristics 319
Regression 319
Biological Theories of Advanced Aging 319
Biological Regression and Motor Performance 323
Changing Movement Patterns 330
Physical Activity and Longevity 333
summary 337
think about it 337
learning activities 338
suggested reading 338
12 Atypical Motor Behavior 339
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 341
Intervention Strategies 342
Autism Spectrum Disorder 342
Intervention Strategies 342
Cerebral Palsy 343
Intervention Strategies 343
Developmental Coordination Disorder 344
Intervention Strategies 345
Down Syndrome 346
Intervention Strategies 346
summary 347
think about it 347
learning activities 348
suggested readings 348
Part Five: Assessing Change 349
13 Assessment 351
Basic Terminology of Assessment 353
Purposes of Assessment 354
Diagnosis/Screening 354
Determine Status 354
Placement 355xx Contents
Program Content 355
Program Evaluation 355
Construction of Norms and Performance Standards 355
Research 355
Prediction 355
Motivation of Individuals 356
Considerations for Proper Assessment 356
Assessment Instruments 357
Newborn Assessment 357
Infant Assessment 359
The Bayley Scales of Infant and T oddler Development 359
The Alberta Infant Motor Scale 360
Posture and Fine Motor Assessment of Infants 361
T est of Infant Motor Performance 361
Assessment of (up to) School-Age Populations 362
Process-Oriented (Fundamental Movement) Assessment Instrument 366
T ests for Older Persons 368
summary 371
think about it 371
learning activities 371
suggested readings 372
Part Six: Sociocultural Influences on Motor Development 373
14 Sociocultural Influences on Motor Development 375
Basic Terminology of Socialization 376
Socializing Processes and Agents 377
The Process–Person–Context–Time Model 379
Primary Influences During Childhood and Adolescence 380
The Family 380
Peer Relations 383
Coaches and T eachers 386
Gender-Role Expectations and Stereotyping 387
Self-esteem 388
Possible Infl uences of Race 390
Primary Influences During Adulthood 390
summary 393
think about it 393
learning activities 394
References 395
Credits 409
Index 411